Plato, Aristotle, and the State

I was chosen to be leader of discussion this seminar for the topic of Plato, Aristotle, and the State. Here is my PowerPoint:

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I started with this painting by Raphael because it gives the real essence of the differences between Plato and Aristotle when considering anything they both have opinions on, such as the State. Plato is pictured on the left pointing upwards, towards the sky; this is suggestive of his metaphysical theories. Next to Plato is his student, Aristotle, who is pointing forward, and is thus suggesting his empirical philosophical tendencies.

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PLATO’S UTOPIA

•Plato’s main concepts (forms, analogy, etc.)

•Three classes of citizens: Guardians (mostly concentrated on), Soldiers, Common People

•What makes a guardian – education, economics, biology and religion

•Justice and the State – Republic

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This slide outlines the main four points of what we learn in the chapter in Russell’s History of Western Philosophy.

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In order to understand Plato’s ‘Utopia’, we must understand the context of his thinking.

FORMS: Ideal commonwealth – Forms are the perfect essences of this material world, they do not appear truly here.

CAVE ANALOGY: We only know the ‘shadows’ of what is real – sunlight = ‘good’, philosophers are the only ones to escape and know what is truly ‘good’, and so they must be leaders.

Three different parts to the soul – REASON, SPIRIT, DESIRE

The chariot

These encourage the classes in society which Plato stated

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Forms – Plato believed that there was a separate world to what we know in this material world: the world of forms. These hold the main concepts of things we experience here. For example, the concept of Beauty. Some may believe that something is beautiful, but others may not. Beauty is not present in its true form in this material world, there are only reflections, or ‘shadows’ of it here.

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This brings us to the Cave Analogy:

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The cave is an analogy of the world. We are all prisoners, made to watch the shadows on the wall (reflections of the Forms). For example, if the shadow of a book appears, we may point and say ‘that is a book’, but we know that the shadow is not the real book. The analogy moves on the explain that if one of the prisoners are set free, they may leave the cave to now observe the real world (the world of forms), and these people are metaphorically philosophers. They are first hesitant, but then welcome the sunlight (the form of Good, the best kind of Form).

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Then I move on to explain how Plato viewed the Soul. Plato believed that there are three parts to the soul; Reason, Spirit, and Desire. Reason holds our previous knowledge to the Forms (intellect). Spirit is what pushes us – courage, anger, bravery. Lastly, Desire relates to our natural instincts, such as food, shelter, and sex.

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Plato goes on to form an allegory to depict how this does indeed affect us. It is the allegory of the Charioteer.

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Reason is the Charioteer, and the two horses are Spirit and Desire. If the charioteer can keep both horses in a harmonious state, then he has achieved the perfect state of soul. If one of the horses goes out of control, then you tend to lose reason and depend on either your desires or your spirit.

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This view of the soul links in to Plato’s theory of State. If you are harmonious, then you are a Guardian, if Spirit takes over then you are Auxiliary (Soldier), and if Desire takes over, then you are a common person.

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•GUARDIANS – they have political power, legislators, in charge

•SOLDIERS – are what they are, ‘auxiliaries’ (support, help, etc)

•COMMON PEOPLE – just like you and I, we fill in society

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Plato was particularly interested in the Guardians, as they were the ones who would lead us in the State, and are therefore special.

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•There are few of them than the other two classes

•They must have the right education, economical background, biology, religion

Education	Music and gymnastics (culture and athletics).MUSIC: no Homer (it expresses things that should not be allowed such as loud laughter and fear of death), plays should contain only faultless male heroes of good birth, and the censorship of any sorrowful/relaxing music, only simple and expressive of courage.GYMNASTICS: No fish or meat other than roast, no sauces or confectionary. Young people are to see no ugliness, only young men to see – but not partake in – war.
Economics	Small houses, simple food, dine in companies – only have necessities, no luxuries. Wealth and poverty are harmful, so neither will exist (in Plato’s city).
Biology	Women are to have the same education, and may share some titles with men (philosopher, soldiers). There will be no families – children to be taken away at birth, sex and pregnancy is regulated heavily, loyalty to state.
Religion	‘One royal lie’ – gold, silver and brass & iron. Societal class is hereditary, but if it is fitting then they may be promoted or demoted accordingly.

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The ‘religious’ point is particularly interesting, and links in with the soul theory. Guardians are golden people, Auxiliary are silver, and the common person is brass and iron.

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From this, Plato continues with his main point of his book ‘Republic’ which is to define Justice.

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•‘the city is Just when trader (common person), auxiliary (soldier), and guardian, each does his own job without interfering with that of other classes.’

•‘Justice’ is synonymous with ‘law’, and nothing to do with equality.

3 points to be noted:

–Injustice would only occur if there were men in the other classes who were wiser than the guardians (hence promotion/demotion)

–What is man’s job? A man is not a father (no family), so the government determines man’s job (no art or science produced, creativity controlled)

–Plato v Thrasymachus – Plato will prove that his ideal republic is good, but Thrasymachus = depends on personal preference (impersonal ideals). Euthyphro dilemma is hinted here.

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As stated above, Justice is only to do with keeping the law, and nothing to do with equality in any way, as you can see from how everyone is classed before they are even born.

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Thrasymachus opposed Plato in The Republic, and it brings one of Plato’s later theories to mind: The Euthyphro Dilemma. This dilemma is: Are good things so because God said they are, or does God instruct us to do things because they are good. In other words, is morality an individual concept that can be interpreted, or are things only good because God – or anyone in charge, for that matter – says so? Thrasymachus takes the stance that morality is subjective, whereas Plato tries to make morality seem objective, and thus illustrates a truly timeless mind-boggling dilemma to our world.

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And so this is Plato’s basic theory of what he would consider a Utopian State. We must consider that in the context of what happened during his lifetime in Ancient Greece, that this incredibly authoritarian and totalitarian stance was entirely reasonable. In terms of creating the most structurally strong society which will survive the unpredictable rulings of Ancient Greece, Plato may be theoretically reasonable.

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This brings us to Aristotle’s ‘Politics’ and his approach to the State. These are the main four points for this section of the PowerPoint:

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•Aristotle’s main concepts

•Clashes with Plato

•His version of what the State should be

•Types of government

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These are Aristotle’s main concepts:

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•Four Causes

–Material

–Formal

–Efficient

–Final

•Golden Mean – the happy medium

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Aristotle’s theory of the Four Causes brings us back to the point I started with when I explained the painting by Raphael: Aristotle believed in empirical evidence for the reason of our existence. The Four Causes illustrates the four causes of our existence. Aristotle explained each point by applying it to the existence of a statue. The material cause is what we are made from, which for the statue it’s marble. The formal cause is the form of which we take, which the statue may take the form of an influential/historical figure. The efficient cause is how it has come to be – the maker – which for the statue it would be the sculptor. Lastly, there is the final cause, the cause which is most important. We all move towards the same ‘end’ – towards the unmovable mover who started off the domino effect of life.

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The Golden Mean is a simple concept which is really what it says – one must find the ‘happy medium’ in things, not go for the excess or deficit. For example, one must not be rash or cowardly, but courageous.

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Here are the clashes between Aristotle and Plato when considering State:

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•Plato gives too much unity to the state

•Family abandonment – love would become ‘watery’

•No communism – mind your own business. This allows benevolence and generosity.

•No equality – crimes are due to excess, not want

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All of these points link nicely. The main idea that Aristotle dislikes is the mindless loyalty that we should give the State, completely disregarding our human nature.

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This then brings us to Aristotle’s theory of what the State should be.

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•State = highest form of community

•Family = first, and is built on relations of man, woman, and slave (natural)

•Slaves should not be Greeks, only inferior races with less spirit, prisoners of war

•Human society = State, 4 causes (efficient cause)

•Trade = trade is unnatural, skilled work is natural.

•Size = not too big (golden mean), big enough to defend and function properly

•Golden mean – education. Children should be taught in a moderate standard. E.g. boys should see war, but not partake.

•The aim of the State is to produce cultured gentlemen

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Rather than giving up family life, Aristotle believes that we should embrace it, and our natural roles: man, woman, and slave.

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He states that human society is the efficient cause of the State, and so it is only natural that our society creates the State. The State should also be in accordance with the golden mean: big enough to defend and function properly as to not become inferior. It is a virtue to be of the golden mean.

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Aristotle goes on to explain the different types of government, and which is best.

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•GOOD = Monarchy, Aristocracy, Polity (Oligarchy and Democracy)

•BAD = Tyranny, Oligarchy, Democracy

•GOLDEN MEAN

•Monarchy v tyranny = ethical

•Democracy v polity = above

•Aristocracy v oligarchy = moderate fortunes

•Democracy = large number of citizens, easily swayed

•Revolution = clash of oligarchs and democrats. Oligarchs = more prone to fall out.

•Prevent revolutions:

–Government propaganda

–Respect for law

–Justice in law and administration

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Aristotle clearly states which are good and bad types of government. Let me define each type he has stated:

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Monarchy – A government in which one person reigns (King/Queen)

Aristocracy -A governing body composed of those considered to be the best or most able people in the state.

Polity – A state or other organized community or body.

Tyranny – The rule of a tyrant or absolute ruler.

Oligarchy – A government by a small dominant class.

Democracy – A government chosen by the people.

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Aristotle incorporated the golden mean into the types of government, also, as listed above. What differs a Monarchy and a Tyranny is that a Tyranny is oppressive, whereas a Monarchy (as my next post on Machiavelli and Hobbes will concentrate on) offers protection over the people. Here, Tyranny is a vice, and Monarchy is the golden mean. The reason why Polity is superior to Democracy is due to the added essence of Oligarchy, the absolute opposite of Democracy – thus making Polity the golden mean. Furthermore, the difference between an Aristocracy and Oligarchy is that an Aristocracy is through a bloodline which the better equipped people are in charge, rather than in an Oligarchy where a small superior class control the State with themselves only in mind.

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The reason why Aristotle is so critical of Democracy is because it was not how we understand it to be today. The type of government the Ancient Greeks had were ‘composed of a large number of citizens chosen by lot, unaided by any jurists; they were, of course, liable to be swayed by eloquence or party passion.’

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A revolution would consist of the clash of Oligarchs and Democrats as the Oligarchs would be continuously oppressive and prone to fall out, and are the polar opposites of Democrats. The way in which one would prevent a revolution would be to follow the three points stated above, or more simply put: brainwash the citizens into trusting the government completely so they will not even have the possibility to think against their ruling.

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Final thoughts:

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Plato and Aristotle are both very Authoritarian thinkers, which links in with the movie that was shown along with the lecture: 1984. These thoughts, although seemingly alien to us now, were accepted for the most part of history, all up until the Renaissance. Scary.